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Appunti second semester history
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- The Weimar Republic (1919-1933): Born from WWI defeat and social revolution, it faced severe instability (1919-1923), economic chaos, hyperinflation, and the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles. A period of recovery (1923-1929) under Stresemann brought currency stabilization and improved foreign relations, but stability was shattered by the Wall Street Crash (1929). Its inherent weaknesses, like Article 48, facilitated Hitler's rise.
- Rise of Nazism: Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party in 1919, advocating nationalism and antisemitism. After a failed coup (Beer Hall Putsch, 1923), he shifted to legal means, exploiting Germany’s economic crisis and Weimar’s failures. Appointed Chancellor in 1933, Hitler swiftly dismantled democracy through events like the Reichstag fire and the Enabling Act, establishing a one-party state and totalitarian rule marked by the SS, Gestapo, and racial cleansing through the Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht.
- World War II (1939-1945): Driven by expansionist ideologies, Hitler's Germany, allied with Fascist Italy (Mussolini) and Imperial Japan, ignited WWII. Key events include the Blitzkrieg in Poland, the Battle of Britain, the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), and major turning points like the Battle of Stalingrad. The US entered after Pearl Harbor (1941), leading to campaigns in the Pacific. The war concluded with Germany's surrender after Hitler's suicide and Japan's surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
- Post-War Transformations and the Cold War: WWII caused immense destruction and 60 million deaths, leading to widespread displacement and misery. The US and USSR, emerging as superpowers, began an ideological and geopolitical conflict – the Cold War (1945-1989). This era was defined by "containment" policies, the Marshall Plan for European recovery, the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, an intense arms race, and proxy conflicts like the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The Cuban Missile Crisis marked a peak of tension, resolved by diplomacy.
- Collapse of the Soviet Bloc: Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika) in the 1980s inadvertently weakened central authority, fueling nationalist movements. The fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) symbolized the bloc's decline. By December 1991, the USSR dissolved into independent republics, ending the Cold War.
- Post-Communist Europe and Conflicts: Eastern European nations like Poland and Hungary transitioned to democracy and market economies, often facing initial economic hardship. Germany reunified in 1990. Yugoslavia dissolved violently, leading to ethnic conflicts and wars in Bosnia and Kosovo. Meanwhile, the birth of Israel (1948) in Palestine initiated the enduring Arab-Israeli conflict.
- Italy's Post-War Journey: Italy abolished its monarchy, becoming a Republic in 1946. It experienced a remarkable "Economic Miracle" in the 1950s-60s, transitioning from an agricultural to an industrial powerhouse. However, this period was also marked by deep social problems and the "Years of Lead" (1969-1980), characterized by extreme political violence from both left-wing (Red Brigades) and right-wing terrorist groups, leaving a lasting impact on its political culture.
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